Thick Disks and Warps

Many disk galaxies, including the Milky Way, host prominent thick stellar disks and large-scale warps in their outer gas and stellar distributions, with thick disks often containing old, a-enhanced stars and warps that are widespread yet long-lived and coherent across large radii (Yoachim & Dalcanton 2006; Poggio et al. 2020). ΛCDM-based models can produce thick disks through early mergers and heating, and warps via tidal interactions or misaligned accretion, but they struggle to explain the ubiquity, symmetry, persistence, and detailed kinematics of thick disks and warps without invoking a delicate balance of merger histories, halo shapes, and gas accretion geometries that may not arise generically from dark-matter–dominated hierarchical assembly (Kazantzidis et al. 2008; Sellwood 2013).

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